Expert System Industry In China

The artificial intelligence industry in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms emphasizing science and innovation as the nation’s primary efficient force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI development were slow and encountered substantial obstacles due to lack of resources and skill. At the beginning China lagged the majority of Western countries in terms of AI development. A bulk of the research study was led by scientists who had actually gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually gradually established a national program for artificial intelligence advancement and emerged as among the leading countries in artificial intelligence research and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to become an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company needs to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s quick AI advancement has substantially affected Chinese society in lots of locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and production are the top markets that would be the most affected by more AI implementation.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in many elements as there are couple of current existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law resolving AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions planned to limit China’s access to advanced computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the impacts of the Chinese government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and technology for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and advancement did not begin till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists released AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was difficult so China’s government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further offering government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have become part of China’s national technology strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has actually further broadened its research and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research jobs has actually dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy priority for the development of synthetic intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was likewise mentioned in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion corresponded with the Chinese government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable turning point in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a strategic innovation that has become a “focus of worldwide competition”. [14]:2 The document advised significant financial investment in a variety of tactical areas related to AI and required close cooperation between the state and personal sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is an important element to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”synthetic intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year saw the emergence of numerous application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council specified the requirement for enormous skill acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, along with public and private investments. [14] Some of the stated inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI technique include the capacity of expert system for commercial improvement, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the introduction of large language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system released China’s very first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the regulations concerning deepfakes, which became efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services security requirements, including requirements for information collection and model training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed concern over AI security threats, consisting of abuse of data or the use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors created with generative expert system to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The 4th and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have launched AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be critical to the future of global military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to standard AI theory and to solidify its location as a global leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council intends for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and economic change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of expert system theory and technology. The State Council claims that China will have established a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to meld state planning and control while some operational flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market securities, creating uneven benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan declared AI as a top research top priority and ranks AI first amongst “frontier industries” that the Chinese federal government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector often supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI funding mainly focused on innovative and applied research. [38] The federal government financing also supported numerous AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research revealed that, while China is massively investing in all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to national assistance on developing China’s high-tech commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and regional industrial development and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competition for computer vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play a vital role in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate collaboration, public-private cooperations, and worldwide cooperations and projects with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI scientists had completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing commitments on AI companies, the total technique to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population creates an enormous amount of accessible data for companies and researchers, which provides an important benefit in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [update], China has the world’s largest variety of internet users, generating big amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial acknowledgment is among the most extensively utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of data from its homeowners assists more train and broaden AI abilities. China’s market is not only favorable and valuable for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise offers remarkable economic prospective drawing in both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The extreme development of the info and communication innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft steps stating that tech companies will be obligated to ensure AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, respects intellectual property rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal obligation for training information and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material may not “incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language design to the general public, companies need to look for approval from the CAC to accredit that the model declines to answer specific concerns connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries consisting of training information sets commonly used for large language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies regional business with training information that CCP leaders think about allowable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese federal government uses generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to respond to questions connecting to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-lasting economic development. In the past, standard markets in China have battled with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional costs are anticipated to decrease while an increase in effectiveness creates revenue development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to overcome adoption barriers consisting of costs and absence of effectively trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI development because of increasing demands for laborers with sophisticated skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial development is focused in seaside regions rather than inland. [61]

A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to construct a “first-rate” military by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching different types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report released afterwards revealed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and ruining a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and fears of a broadening “generational gap” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to use AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, generating a common operating picture, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to incorporate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, choice support, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few boundaries exist in between Chinese industrial companies, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of guiding AI development priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly developed for civilian purposes. To further reinforce these ties the Chinese federal government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI technology from business business and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of information labeling to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily appropriate AI applications, possibly giving it lawful access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese venture capital investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial nations,” from buying U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] sophisticated clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its design usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, especially given that China faces obstacles in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have actually been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the same percentage of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China specifically want to deal with military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently established the first children’s instructional program in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with particular focus on user security, data privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles requiring vital needs in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and lots of national governments have actually developed legislation dealing with information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to resolve brand-new difficulties raised by AI advancement. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework categorizing all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are required to classify their information into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements connected to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI assesses the proof presented and uses pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology companies may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has sought to encourage personal tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for enterprise use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to international AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained causes of China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed both commercial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government officials demonstrated incredibly eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly focus on cultivating proficiency and understanding of AI developments in China” and “financing, focus, and a desire among U.S. policymakers to drive massive needed change.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have exceptional resources and huge untapped potential, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research culture. Rather than fret about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the development of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI produces challenges for holistic nationwide security, including the threats that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing results on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will cause higher oppression of workers and more serious social problems. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital build-up and political power in less financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the main accountable star in the area of generative AI (creating new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI dangers escalating military competition in between countries which the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation but will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential danger from expert system have taken place. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is normally optimistic regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI surpass the dangers, the greatest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student found that 80% agreed or strongly agreed that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% believed it needs to be managed by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly used AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang area to detect Uyghurs is “the very first recognized example of a federal government intentionally using artificial intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, especially by local municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence companies
Regulation of synthetic intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.